A Boolean Analysis of Adherence to Religious Rituals in Iranian Society

Document Type : Research Paper

Authors

1 Associate Professor of Sociology, Research Institute of Imam Khomeini and Islamic Revolution, Tehran, Iran

2 . Ph.D. Student of Cultural Sociology, Hozeh and University Research Institute, Qom, Iran

10.30471/soci.2025.11114.2082

Abstract

Extended Abstract
 
Introduction and Objectives: The significance of religion for sociologists does not stem from its intrinsic nature but from its observable effects on social life and, conversely, the ways in which social conditions influence religious behavior. From a sociological perspective, “religious action” or “religiosity,” like other forms of human behavior, is shaped by the surrounding environment and broader social conditions.
Religions and their denominations encompass not only doctrinal and faith-based dimensions but also rituals and worship practices that believers are expected to observe. Adherence to these practices is often considered a visible sign of devotion. In sociological studies of religion, “religious rituals” are a central phenomenon, widely analyzed through various theoretical lenses. One prominent framework is the relative deprivation theory, which posits that religion serves as a compensatory mechanism for individuals’ experiences of deprivation. According to this theory, individuals facing economic, psychological, social, organic, or moral deficiencies are more likely to engage in religious practices, whereas those with minimal deprivation exhibit lower levels of religiosity.
Building on this premise, the present study aims to empirically examine the applicability of relative deprivation theory within Iranian society. Among the various dimensions of deprivation, this study focuses on economic and psychological factors, operationalized through four indicators: economic welfare, economic inequality, education, and urbanization. Accordingly, the primary research question is:
What combinations of the indicators “education,” “economic inequality,” “economic welfare,” and “urbanization” causally affect high or low levels of adherence to obligatory (Wājib) and recommended (Mustaḥabb) religious rituals in Iran?
Research Method: To address this question, the study employs Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA), a method particularly suitable for analyzing complex causal patterns within small to medium-sized datasets. QCA, introduced by Ragin (1987), utilizes Boolean algebra to explore logically possible combinations of variables across cases, thereby reducing the challenges of causal inference in small-N studies (typically 10–50 cases).
QCA focuses on identifying necessary and sufficient conditions while adopting a holistic and combinatorial logic. Its holistic orientation aligns with the approach of qualitative researchers who aim to examine causality within the context of interacting conditions rather than in isolation. Unlike regression-based methods, QCA acknowledges that a given variable may exert different effects depending on the presence or absence of other factors.
In this study, the level of analysis is provincial, with the unit of analysis being Iran’s 31 provinces (N=31). The method identifies Boolean combinations of the four independent variables (education, economic inequality, economic welfare, urbanization) that either promote or inhibit adherence to obligatory and recommended rituals.
Results: The QCA produced Boolean equations representing causal configurations for high and low adherence to obligatory and recommended rituals:

High adherence to obligatory rituals (Wājib):

R = abCD + Bcd + ABc + AcD

Low education + low economic inequality + high economic welfare + high urbanization
High economic inequality + low economic welfare + low urbanization
High education + high economic inequality + low economic welfare
High education + low economic welfare + high urbanization


Low adherence to obligatory rituals (Wājib):

r = AbCD + abc + acD + bcd + abd + aBD

High education + low economic inequality + high economic welfare + high urbanization
Low education + low economic inequality + low economic welfare
Low education + low economic welfare + high urbanization
Low economic inequality + low economic welfare + low urbanization
Low education + low economic inequality + low urbanization
Low education + high economic inequality + high urbanization


High adherence to recommended rituals (Mustaḥabb):

R = Acd + Abc + Bcd + abCd

High education + low economic welfare + low urbanization
High education + low economic inequality + low economic welfare
High economic inequality + low economic welfare + low urbanization
Low education + low economic inequality + high economic welfare + low urbanization


Low adherence to recommended rituals (Mustaḥabb):

r = bCD + aD

Low economic inequality + high economic welfare + high urbanization
Low education + high urbanization

Discussion and Conclusion: The study’s results provide a nuanced assessment of the applicability of relative deprivation theory to Iranian religiosity. According to the theory, one would expect high adherence to rituals to occur under conditions of low education, high economic inequality, low economic welfare, and low urbanization (aBcd), while low adherence would correspond to high education, low economic inequality, high economic welfare, and high urbanization (AbCD). These combinations would serve as sufficient conditions for religiosity according to the theory.
However, the Boolean results obtained in this study do not support these hypothesized configurations. The expected combinations (aBcd for high adherence and AbCD for low adherence) were absent among the sufficient conditions derived from the analysis. Furthermore, none of the four independent variables—whether at high or low levels—emerged as a necessary condition for adherence to either obligatory or recommended rituals across Iranian provinces. The sole exception is high urbanization, which appears as a necessary condition for low adherence to recommended rituals, partially aligning with expectations.
These findings indicate that, within the Iranian context, adherence to religious rituals cannot be fully explained by relative deprivation theory. The relationship between socioeconomic indicators and ritual observance is more complex than the theory predicts, and the influence of economic welfare, inequality, education, and urbanization is highly contingent upon specific combinations of factors rather than any single variable.
From a methodological standpoint, the study demonstrates the utility of Boolean QCA in uncovering multiple conjunctural causations in sociological research. The combinatorial approach allows for the identification of diverse pathways leading to both high and low levels of ritual adherence, highlighting the context-dependent nature of religiosity. Unlike regression analysis, which assumes additive and independent effects of variables, QCA captures the interactive effects that produce heterogeneous outcomes across social contexts.
In conclusion, this study challenges the explanatory power of relative deprivation theory in contemporary Iranian society. Religious adherence cannot be reduced to linear responses to economic or educational deprivation; rather, it emerges from complex interactions among multiple social and structural factors. The findings underscore the importance of considering local social, economic, and cultural contexts when analyzing patterns of religiosity. Moreover, the study illustrates the relevance of combinatorial methods such as Boolean QCA in sociological research, offering a robust framework for analyzing causal complexity in religious behavior.

Keywords

References

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